Social and Religious Reform Movements

The nineteenth century witnessed the rise of several social and religious reform movements in India. These movements aimed to eradicate social evils, promote rational thinking, and reform Indian society.

Brahmo Samaj

Brahmo Samaj was founded in 1828 by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in Calcutta.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy

• Known as the Father of Modern India.
• Master of several languages including Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, English, French, and Greek.
• Opposed idol worship.
• Supported monotheism (belief in one God).
• Fought against social evils and superstitions.
• Worked for the upliftment of women.

Major Contributions

• Played a key role in the abolition of the Sati System in 1829.
• Helped establish Hindu College in Calcutta with the support of David Hare.
• Established Vedanta College in 1825.
• After his death, Debendranath Tagore assumed leadership of the Brahmo Samaj in 1843.

Impact of Colonial Economic Policies

British economic policies significantly affected India's economy and society.

Major Effects

• Decline of traditional handicraft industries.
• Stagnation of industrial development.
• Commercialization of agriculture.
• Increase in rural poverty and indebtedness.
• Emergence of the Zamindar class.
• Beginning of modern industries.

Famine Policy in British India

Several severe famines occurred during British rule.

Important Famines

Bengal Famine (1769–1770)

• Nearly one-third of Bengal’s population perished.

Famine of 1860

• Affected Delhi and nearby regions.
• Relief measures were inadequate.

Famine Code (1883)

• Introduced by the British Government to provide guidelines for famine relief and management.

Important Famine Commissions

Campbell Commission (1866–67)

• Appointed to investigate the Orissa Famine.
• Recommended improvements in relief measures.

Strachey Commission (1878–80)

• Suggested systematic famine relief policies.
• Recommended the creation of famine relief funds.

Lyall Commission (1897)

• Reviewed famine administration and relief policies.

MacDonnell Commission (1900)

• Evaluated famine relief operations.
• Emphasized village-level relief and assistance.

Important Economic Commissions and Committees

Adam Smith Committee (1778)

• Examined issues related to land revenue and famine.

Nicholson Commission (1892)

• Reviewed the functioning of government institutions.

Welby Commission

• Investigated the financial burden imposed on India by Britain.

Hardinge Committee (1916)

• Concerned with industrial development.

Royal Commission on Agriculture (1928)

• Examined the condition of Indian agriculture.

Hilton Young Commission (1926)

• Related to currency and banking reforms.

Sargent Commission (1934)

• Concerned with educational reforms.

Floud Commission (1940)

• Recommended the abolition of the Zamindari system.
• Favored granting more rights to tenants and sharecroppers.

Development of Capitalism in India

Capitalism in India developed in three major phases.

1. Commercial Capitalism (1757–1813)

Features

• East India Company enjoyed monopoly over trade.
• India was mainly a supplier of raw materials.
• Wealth was transferred from India to Britain.

2. Industrial Capitalism (1813–1858)

Features

• Monopoly of the East India Company ended through the Charter Acts of 1813 and 1833.
• British manufactured goods flooded Indian markets.
• Indian traditional industries declined.
• Economic exploitation intensified.

3. Financial Capitalism (1858–1947)

Features

• Expansion of railways, telegraphs, and communication networks.
• Increased foreign investment.
• India became a market for British products.
• Growth of banking and financial institutions.

Drain of Wealth Theory

The Drain of Wealth Theory was propounded by Dadabhai Naoroji.

Main Idea

• India's wealth was continuously transferred to Britain without adequate economic return.
• This led to India's increasing poverty and underdevelopment.

Important Books by Dadabhai Naoroji

England’s Debt to India

• Discussed Britain's economic exploitation of India.

Poverty and Un-British Rule in India

• Explained the causes and consequences of the drain of wealth.

Channels of Wealth Drain

• Salaries of British officials.
• Pensions paid in Britain.
• Expenses of the India Office in London.
• Military expenditures.
• Home Charges.

Important Facts

• The Indian National Congress accepted the Drain Theory at its Calcutta Session of 1896.
• Gopal Krishna Gokhale also supported the theory.

Industrial Development in India

Cotton Textile Industry

• The first modern cotton textile mill was established in Bombay in 1854.
• It marked the beginning of modern industrialization in India.

Jute Industry

• The first jute mill was established at Rishra (Hooghly) in 1855.

Paper Industry

Major paper mills were established at:

• Lucknow – 1879
• Titagarh – 1882
• Poona – 1889
• Raniganj – 1892

Cement Industry

• India's first cement factory was established at Porbandar in 1914.

Factory Act, 1891

Important Provisions

• Enacted during the tenure of Lord Lansdowne.
• Applied to factories employing 50 or more workers.
• Improved working conditions in factories.
• Regulated working hours of laborers.

Important Facts for Competitive Exams

• Brahmo Samaj founded – 1828
• Founder of Brahmo Samaj – Raja Ram Mohan Roy
• Abolition of Sati – 1829
• Drain of Wealth Theory – Dadabhai Naoroji
• Royal Commission on Agriculture – 1928
• Floud Commission – 1940
• First modern cotton textile mill – Bombay, 1854
• First jute mill – Rishra, 1855
• First cement factory – Porbandar, 1914
• Factory Act – 1891
• Bengal Famine – 1769–1770